African Elephant Alarm Calls Distinguish between Threats from Humans and Bees

The Samburu pastoralists of Northern Kenya co-exist with African elephants (Loxodonta africana), competing for resources like watering holes. Audio playback experiments show that elephants produce distinct alarm calls in response to Samburu tribesmen's voices. When exposed to adult male Samburu voices, elephants displayed vigilance, flight behaviors, and vocalizations such as rumbles, roars, and trumpets. The "Samburu alarm rumbles" were characterized by increased frequencies and formant shifts compared to control rumbles. These alarm rumbles prompted similar behaviors in listening elephants. Comparatively, "Samburu alarm rumbles" were distinct from "bee alarm rumbles," with different frequency shifts and behavioral reactions. These findings indicate that African elephant alarm calls can differentiate between types of threats and reflect their urgency.